RUSSIA

The Russian Federation (Advanced level)

The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies about one-seventh of the earth's surface. It covers the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia. Its total area is about 17 million square kilometers. The country is washed by 12 seas and 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic and the Atlantic. Russia borders on eighteen states. Among them are Georgia, Norway, Ukraine and Finland.  It also has a sea-border with the USA and Japan.

There are steppes in the south, plains and forests in the midland, tundra and taiga in the north, highlands and deserts in the east. There are over two million rivers in Russia. The Volga is the biggest river in Europe but it is smaller than great Siberian rivers, the Yenisei and the Ob. Russia is rich in beautiful lakes. The world's deepest lake (1,600 meters) is Lake Baikal.

There are several mountain chains on the territory of the country: the Urals, the Caucasus, the Altai and others. The largest mountain chain, the Urals, separates Europe from Asia. Russia has one-sixth of the world's forests. They are concentrated in the European north of the country, in Siberia and in the Far East. On the vast territory of the country there are various types of climate: arctic, subtropical, temperate and continental. Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources.

Russia is a parliamentary republic. This means that the Head of State is the President. The legislative power is exercised by the State Duma (the Russian Parliament). The capital of Russia is Moscow. It's its largest political, scientific, cultural and industrial centre. It's one of the oldest Russian cities. Moscow was founded in 1147 by Yuri Dolgoruky.

The state symbol of Russia is a three-coloured banner. It has 3 horizontal stripes: white, blue and red. They mean sincerity, honesty and bravery. The other state symbol is the double-headed eagle. The hymn of Russia is “the Patriotic Song”. The music is written by A.Aleksandrov, the lyrics are written by S.Mikhalkov. The Birch Tree is a symbol of Russia too.

Personally, I feel that we all live in a great and rich country. We should be proud ofour long history, rich traditions, unique culture and our Russian spirit.

The Russian Federation (Basic level)

The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It covers the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia. The country is washed by 12 seas and 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic and the Atlantic. Russia borders on eighteen states.  It also has a sea-border with the USA and Japan.

There are steppes in the south, plains and forests in the midland, tundra and taiga in the north, highlands and deserts in the east. There are over two million rivers in Russia. The Volga is the biggest river in Europe but it is smaller than great Siberian rivers, the Yenisei and the Ob. Russia is rich in beautiful lakes. The world's deepest lake (1,600 meters) is Lake Baikal.

There are several mountain chains on the territory of the country: the Urals, the Caucasus, the Altai and others. Russia has one-sixth of the world's forests. They are concentrated in the European north of the country, in Siberia and in the Far East. On the vast territory of the country there are various types of climate: arctic, subtropical, temperate and continental. Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources.

Russia is a parliamentary republic. This means that the Head of State is the President. The legislative power is exercised by the State Duma (the Russian Parliament). The capital of Russia is Moscow. It's its largest political, scientific, cultural and industrial centre. It's one of the oldest Russian cities. Moscow was founded in 1147 by Yuri Dolgoruky.

The state symbol of Russia is a three-coloured banner. It has 3 horizontal stripes: white, blue and red. They mean sincerity, honesty and bravery. The other state symbol is the double-headed eagle. The hymn of Russia is “the Patriotic Song”. The music is written by A. Aleksandrov, the lyrics are written by S. Mikhalkov. The Birch Tree is a symbol of Russia too.

Personally, I feel that we all live in a great and rich country. We should be proud of our long history, rich traditions, unique culture and our Russian spirit.

Natural and man-made disasters Advanced

Nowadays the humanity suffers from a great number of natural and man-made disasters. The scientific and technological progress has changed the life on our planet and, as a result, our natural resources are exhausted, the ecological balance of the planet is disturbed, many species of flora and fauna disappeared, pollution threatens everything alive. Man destroys the environment with arson, oil spills and the use of chemicals. However, the environmental problems are not the only ones. Every year thousands of people die because of natural disasters such as floods, tidal waves, droughts, earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, avalanches, landslides and volcanic eruptions.

A volcanic eruption is very dangerous as it causes massive destruction as well as deaths. At first, a mountain is hit by an earthquake and the top of the mountain is blown off by an explosion. The explosion causes the first casualties. Then the hot ash starts fires which burn vast areas of forest. The volcanic cloud might be so large and dark that it seems day turns into night, forcing airports to close. Mud from the volcano runs down the mountainside and fills rivers, causing flooding. People are forced to leave their homes as the water continues to rise.

Volcanic eruptions are usually caused by earthquakes. The Earth’s surface is actually made up of huge tectonic plates that are in constant motion. Whenever there is a sudden movement between two plates we feel an earthquake. The destruction earthquakes cause can be devastating. They have the ability to make entire cities come crashing down.

 What’s worse is that in some parts of the world, earthquakes are the direct cause of another natural disaster: tsunami. A tsunami is a series of waves of enormous size and speed. A large tsunami might reach over a hundred feet in height and can travel more than 1000 feet inland, destroying everything in its path. People living in low-lying areas are most vulnerable to this disaster which can take lives and make people homeless.

 A flood is a widely occurring natural disaster that has many causes. Floods can be the result of hurricanes, tsunamis or heavy rains, but they can also occur when dams or levees that protect low-lying areas break, letting loose a large amount of water. Floods not only ruin homes, but can also contaminate the land by spreading hazardous materials.

Hurricanes are very powerful spiraling tropical storms that begin in warm sea waters and have wind speeds of at least 74 miles per hour. Hurricanes can cause storm surges, where sea levels rise dramatically. Tornadoes, or whirlwinds, are similar, but begin over land.

A landslide is another type of natural disaster that can vary from falling rocks to large portions of land breaking off of a steep slope. Landslides generally happen as a result of heavy rains or earthquakes which can weaken soil and make it give way to gravity.

Avalanches are similar to landslides but they happen in snowy areas. Skiers and hikers are often responsible for triggering them. Avalanches are most likely to occur just after a snowstorm or when the weather suddenly warms up making the snowpack weak and likely to collapse. 

If a natural disaster strikes some place, lots of people help survivors. Rescue workers pick up casualties and survivors by helicopter, move them away from the dangerous area and take them to hospital if necessary. Sometimes Red Cross doctors treat the injured. Volunteers build shelters, fire-fighters put out the fires and other countries send emergency medical supplies. The government gives money to help pay for the rebuilding of the houses which have been destroyed while survivors are trying to get over the shock.

 I think the biggest problem with natural disasters is that we can’t predict and avoid them in time. However, advances in technologies can make us safer as we develop new methods of prediction and better defenсes. In the decades to come, technology will play a crucial role in saving lives and reducing the impact of natural disasters, making mankind more resilient to nature’s forces.

Natural and man-made disasters (Basic level)

Nowadays the humanity suffers from a great number of natural and man-made disasters. Man destroys the environment with arson, oil spills and the use of chemicals. What’s more, every year thousands of people die because of natural disasters such as floods, tidal waves, droughts, earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, avalanches, landslides and volcanic eruptions.

A volcanic eruption is very dangerous as it causes massive destruction as well as deaths. The explosion causes the first casualties. Then the hot ash starts fires which burn vast areas of forest. Mud from the volcano fills rivers, causing flooding. People are forced to leave their homes as the water continues to rise.

Volcanic eruptions are usually caused by earthquakes. The Earth’s surface is actually made up of huge tectonic plates that are in constant motion. Whenever there is a sudden movement between two plates we feel an earthquake. The destruction earthquakes cause can be devastating.

 What’s more, earthquakes cause tsunamis. A tsunami is a series of waves of enormous size and speed. A large tsunami can take lives and make people homeless.

Floods can be the result of hurricanes, tsunamis or heavy rains, but they can also occur when dams or levees that protect low-lying areas break. Floods ruin homes and contaminate the land by spreading hazardous materials.

Hurricanes are very powerful tropical storms that begin in warm sea waters. Hurricanes can cause storm surges, where sea levels rise dramatically. Tornadoes are similar, but begin over land.

A landslide is another type of natural disaster that can vary from falling rocks to large portions of land breaking off of a steep slope. Avalanches are similar to landslides but they happen in snowy areas. Skiers and hikers are often responsible for triggering them.

If a natural disaster strikes some place, lots of people help survivors. Rescue workers pick up casualties and survivors by helicopter, and take them to hospital if necessary. Sometimes Red Cross doctors treat the injured. Volunteers build shelters, fire-fighters put out the fires and other countries send emergency medical supplies. The government gives money to help pay for the rebuilding of the houses while survivors are trying to get over the shock.

 I think the biggest problem with natural disasters is that we can’t predict and avoid them in time. However, advances in technologies can make us safer as we develop new methods of prediction and better defences.